South Africa is one of only 17 countries worldwide considered Megadiverse. It has more than 20,000 different plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it particularly rich in plant biodiversity. South Africa is the third most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Indonesia and has greater biodiversity than any country of equal or smaller size (Brazil being roughly seven times South Africa's size, and Indonesia more than 50% larger).
South Africa's most prevalent biome is grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mainly camel-thorn and whitethorn. Vegetation becomes even more sparse towards the northwest due to low rainfall. There are several species of water-storing succulents like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savannah turns slowly into a bush savannah towards the northeast of the country, with more dense growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.
Fynbos Plants
The Fynbos Biome, which makes up the majority of the area and plant life in the Cape floristic region, one of the six floral kingdoms, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, making it among the richest regions on earth in terms of floral biodiversity. The majority of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African plant is the protea genus of flowering plants. There are around 130 different species of protea in South Africa.
There are even smaller reserves of forests that are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine. South Africa has lost extensive acreage of natural habitat in the last four decades, primarily due to overpopulation, sprawling development patterns and deforestation during the nineteenth century. South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion by alien species with many (e.g. Black Wattle, Port Jackson, Hakea, Lantana and Jacaranda) posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. The original temperate forest that met the first European settlers to South Africa was exploited ruthlessly until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African Black Ironwood (Olea laurifolia) are under government protection.
Climate change is expected to bring considerable warming and drying to
much of this already semi-arid region, with greater frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, flooding and
drought. According to computer generated climate modelling produced by
the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) (along with
many of its partner institutions), parts of southern Africa will see an
increase in temperature by about one degree Celsius along the coast to
more than four degrees Celsius in the already hot hinterland such as
the Northern Cape in late spring and summertime by 2050.
White Rhino
Numerous mammals are found in the bushveld habitats including lion, leopard, White Rhino, Blue Wildebeest, kudu, impala, hyena, hippopotamus, and giraffe. There is a significant extent of the bushveld habitat in the northeast including Kruger National Park and the Mala Mala Reserve, as well as in the far north in the Waterberg Biosphere.
History
Before the arrival of European settlers
South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological sites in Africa. Extensive fossil remains at the Sterkfontein, Kromdraai and Makapansgat caves suggest that various australopithecines existed in South Africa from about three million years ago. These were succeeded by various species of Homo, including Homo habilis, Homo erectus and modern man, Homo sapiens. Bantu-speaking people, iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, moved south of the Limpopo River into modern-day South Africa by the fourth or fifth century (the Bantu expansion) displacing the original Khoi and San speakers. They slowly moved south and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoi and San people, reaching the Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. These Iron Age populations displaced earlier hunter-gatherer peoples as they migrated.
Bartolomeu Dias, * about 1450, † 29. May 1500
The written history of South Africa begins with the accounts of European navigators passing South Africa on the East Indies trade routes. The first European navigator to achieve circumnavigation of the Cape was the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488.
When Bartolomeu Dias returned to Lisbon he carried news of this discovery he called "Cabo das Tormentas" (cape of storms). But for his sponsor, Henry the Navigator, chose a different name, "Cabo da Boa Esperança" Cape of Good Hope for it promised a sea route to the riches of India, which was eagerly anticipated in Portugal.
Dutch colonial time
Romanticised painting of an account of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck
Along with the accounts of the early navigators, the accounts of
shipwreck survivors provide the earliest written accounts of Southern
Africa. In the two centuries following 1488,
a number of small fishing settlements were made along the coast by
Portuguese sailors, but no written account of these settlements
survives. In 1652 a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the slowly-expanding settlement was a Duch possession. The Dutch settlers eventually met the southwesterly expanding Xhosa people in the region of the Fish River. A series of wars, called Cape Frontier Wars, ensued, mainly caused by conflicting land and livestock interests.
To ease Cape labour shortages slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar, and India.
Furthermore, troublesome leaders, often of royal descent, were banished
from Dutch colonies to South Africa. This group of slaves eventually
gave rise to a population that now identifies themselves as "Cape Malays". Cape Malays
have traditionally been accorded a higher social status by the European
colonists - many became wealthy landowners, but became increasingly
dispossessed as Apartheid developed. Cape Malay mosques in District Six were spared, and now serve as monuments for the destruction that occurred around them.
Most of the descendants of these slaves, who often married with
Dutch settlers, were later classified together with the remnants of the
Khoikhoi (aka Khoisan) as Cape Coloureds. Further intermingling within the Cape Coloureds population itself, as well as with Xhosa and other South African people, now means that they constitute roughly 50% of the population in the Western Cape Province.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1797 seeking to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. The Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1805.
The British continued the frontier wars against the Xhosa, pushing the
eastern frontier eastward through a line of forts established along the
Fish River and consolidating it by encouraging British settlement. Due to pressure of abolitionist societies in Britain, the British parliament first stopped its global slave trade in 1806, then abolished slavery in all its colonies in 1833.
The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886 encouraged economic growth and immigration, intensifying the subjugation of the natives. The Boers successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880 - 1881) using guerrilla warfare tactics, much better suited to local conditions. However, the British
returned in greater numbers without their red jackets in the Second Boer War (1899 - 1902). The Boers' attempt to ally themselves with German South West Africa provided the British with yet another excuse to take control of the Boer Republics.
Boer women and children in British concentrations camps
The Boers resisted fiercely, but the British eventually overwhelmed
the Boer forces, using their superior numbers, improved tactics and
external supply chains. Also during this war, the British used
controversial Concentration Camps and Scorched Earth tactics. The Treaty of Vereeniging specified full British sovereignty over the South African republics, and the British government agreed to assume the £3.000.000
war debt owed by the Afrikaner governments. One of the main provisions
of the treaty ending the war was that 'Blacks' would not be allowed to
vote, except in the Cape Colony.
After four years of negotiations, the Union of South Africa was created from the Cape and Natal colonies, as well as the republics of Orange Free State and Transvaal, on May 31, 1910, exactly eight years after the end of the Second Boer War. The newly-created Union of South Africa was a dominion. In 1934, the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking 'Whites', but split in 1939 over the Union's entry into World War II as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which the National Party strongly opposed.
In 1948, the National Party was elected to power, and began implementing a series of harsh segregationist laws that would become known collectively as apartheid.
Not surprisingly, this segregation also applied to the wealth acquired
during rapid industrialisation of the 1950s, '60s, and '70s. While the
White minority enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, often comparable to "First World"
western nations, the Black majority remained disadvantaged by almost
every standard, including income, education, housing, and life
expectancy. However, the average income and life expectancy of a black,
'Indian' or 'coloured' South African compared favourably to many other
African states, such as Ghana and Tanzania.
Apartheid
became increasingly controversial, leading to widespread sanctions and
divestment abroad and growing unrest and oppression within South Africa. A long
period of harsh suppression by the government, and at times violent resistance,
strikes, marches, protests, and sabotage, by various anti-apartheid movements,
most notably the African National Congress (ANC), followed. In 1990, the
National Party government took the first step towards negotiating itself out of
power when it lifted the ban on the African National Congress and other
left-wing political organisations, and released Nelson Mandela from prison
after twenty-seven years' incarceration on a sabotag sentence. Apartheid
legislation was gradually removed from the statute books, and the first
multi-racial elections were held in 1994. The ANC won by an overwhelming
majority and has been in power ever since.
Despite
the end of apartheid, millions of South Africans, mostly black, continue to
live in poverty. This is partly attributed to the legacy of the apartheid
system (although poverty is also a problem throughout much of Africa), and,
increasingly, what many see as the failure of the current government to tackle
social issues, coupled with the monetary and fiscal discipline of the current
government to ensure both redistribution of wealth and economic growth. In the
ten years since the ANC government took power, South Africa's United Nations Human
Development Index has fallen dramatically, while it was steadily rising until
the mid-1990s. Much of this could be attributed to the AIDS pandemic and
the government's failure to take steps to address it. However, the ANC's social
housing policy has produced some improvement in living conditions in many areas
by redirecting fiscal spending and improving the efficiency of the tax
collection system.
Climate
Climatic features
The subtropical location, on either side of 30 degree South, accounts for the warm temperate conditions so typical of South Africa, making it a popular destination for foreign tourists. The country also falls squarely within the subtropical belt of high pressure, making it dry, with an abundance of sunshine. The wide expanses of ocean on three sides of South Africa have a moderating influence on its climate. More apparent, however, are the effects of the warm Agulhas and cold Benguela currents along the east and west coasts respectively. While Durban (east coast) and Port Nolloth (west coast) lie more or less on the same latitude, there is a difference of at least 6C in their mean annual temperatures. Gale-force winds are frequent on the coasts, especially in the south-western and southern coastal areas.
Rainfall
South Africa has an average annual rainfall of 464 mm, compared with a world average of 860 mm. About 20% of the country has a total annual rainfall of less than 200 mm, 48% between 200 and 600 mm, while only about 30% records more than 600 mm. In total, 65% of the country has an annual rainfall of less than 500 mm usually regarded as the absolute minimum for successful dry-land farming. In Cape Town, the capital city of the Western Cape, the average rainfall is highest in the winter months, while in the capital cities of the other eight provinces, the average rainfall is highest during summer. South Africa's rainfall is unreliable and unpredictable. Large fluctuations in the average annual figure are the rule rather than the exception in most areas of the country. Years when a below-average figure is recorded are more common than years with an above-average total. South Africa is periodically afflicted by drastic and prolonged droughts, which often end in severe floods.
Temperatures
Temperature conditions in South Africa are characterised by three main features. Firstly, temperatures tend to be lower than in other regions at similar latitudes, for example Australia. This is due primarily to the greater elevation above sea level of the subcontinent. Secondly, despite a latitudinal span of 13 degrees, average annual temperatures are remarkably uniform throughout the country. Owing to the increase in the height of the plateau towards the northeast, there is hardly any increase in temperature from south to north as might be expected. The third feature is the striking contrast between temperatures on the east and west coasts. Temperatures above 32°C are fairly common in summer, and frequently exceed 38°C in the lower Orange River valley and the Mpumalanga Lowveld.
Frost, humidity and fog
Frost often occurs on the interior plateau during cold, clear winter nights, with ice forming on still pools and in water-pipes. The frost season is longest (from April to October) over the eastern and southern plateau areas bordering on the Escarpment. Frost decreases to the north, while the coast is virtually frost-free. Average annual relative humidity readings show that, in general, the air is driest over the western interior and over the plateau. Along the coast, the humidity is much higher and at times may rise to 85%. Low stratus clouds and fog frequently occur over the cool west coast, particularly during summer. The only other area that commonly experiences fog is the 'mist belt' along the eastern foothills of the Escarpment.
Sunshine
South Africa is famous for its sunshine. Generally speaking, April and May are the most pleasant months. The rainy season over the summer-rainfall region has then ended, while it has not yet really started in the winter-rainfall area. The hot summer weather has abated, and the winds are lighter than during the rest of the year.
People
Population
The country's black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions survive most strongly; as blacks have become increasingly urbanised and westernised, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Urban blacks usually speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still significant groups of speakers of Khoisan languages which are not official languages, but are one of the eight officially recognised languages. There are small groups of speakers of endangered languages, most of which are from the Khoi-San family, that receive no official status; however, some groups within South Africa are attempting to promote their use and revival.
The middle class lifestyle, predominantly of the white minority but with significant numbers of black, Coloured and Indian people, is similar in many respects to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work abroad for greater exposure to the world's markets.
Despite considerable discrimination under apartheid, Coloureds tend to relate more to white South African culture rather than black South African culture, especially Afrikaans-speaking Coloured people whose language and religious beliefs are similar or identical to white Afrikaners. The exceptions are coloured individuals and families who were personally involved in the struggle against apartheid and who prefer to be called black. Such cases are generally in the minority.
Asians, predominantly of Indian origin, preserve their own cultural heritage, languages and religious beliefs, being either Christian, Hindu or Sunni Muslim and speaking English, with Indian languages like Hindi, Telugu, Tamil or Gujarati being spoken less frequently. Most Indians live lifestyles similar to that of whites. The first Indians arrived on the famous Truro ship as indentured labourers in Natal to work the Sugar Cane Fields. There is a much smaller Chinese community in South Africa, although its numbers have increased due to immigration from Republic of China.
The largest provincial population is in KwaZulu-Natal, with 9.4 million counted in the 2001 census but the most densely populated province is Gauteng, with some 8.8 million people occupying just 1.4% of the country's land area. The most sparsely populated, with less than a million people, is the dry Northern Cape, by far the biggest in terms of area as it occupies nearly 30% of the country. Perhaps surprisingly in a country with comparatively few major urban centres and a great deal of wide open space, slightly more than 50% of the population live in urban areas. This is not only because of the number of rural people who have moved to towns to find work, but also because much of the wide open space is arid and therefore sparsely populated.
The most rural area is Limpopo Province. Gauteng, with both Johannesburg and Pretoria within its boundaries, is almost entirely urban. Other areas of high urban concentration are around Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth/East London and, in the interior, Bloemfontein.
Languages
South Africa has eleven official languages: Afrikaans, English,
Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda,
Xhosa and Zulu. In this regard it is second only to India in number.
While each language is technically equal to every other, some languages
are spoken more than others.
There are eleven official names for South Africa, one in each of the official national languages.
According to the 1996 National Census, the three most spoken first
home languages are Zulu (9.2 million), Xhosa (7.2 million) and
Afrikaans (5.8 million). The three most spoken second home languages
are English (2.2 million), Afrikaans (1.1 million) and Zulu (0.5
million). The four most spoken home languages are Zulu (9.8 million),
Xhosa (7.5 million), Afrikaans (6.9 million) and English (5.7 million).
The 1996 census does not include information about languages spoken
elsewhere than at home.
Map showing principal South African languages by municipality. Lighter shades indicate a non-majority plurality.
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Afrikaans
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Tsonga
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Ndebele
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Setswana
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Northern Sotho
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Venda
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Southern Sotho
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isiXhosa
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Swati
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isiZulu
The country also recognises eight non-official languages: Fanagalo,
Khoe, Lobedu, Nama, Northern Ndebele, Phuthi, San and South African
Sign Language. These non-official languages may be used in certain
official uses in limited areas where it has been determined that these
languages are prevalent. Nevertheless, their populations are not such
that they require nationwide recognition.
Many of the "unofficial languages" of the San and Khoikhoi people
contain regional dialects stretching northward into Namibia and
Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct
population from other Africans, have their own cultural identity based
on their hunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised to a
great extent, and many of their languages are in danger of becoming
extinct.
Many white South Africans also speak other European languages, such
as Portuguese (also spoken by Angolan and Mozambican blacks), German
and Greek, while many Asians and Indians in South Africa speak South
Asian languages, such as Telugu, Hindi, Gujarati and Tamil.
Geography
The land
The Republic of South Africa occupies the southernmost part of the African continent, stretching latitudinally from 22° to 35° S and longitudinally from 17° to 33° E. Its surface area is 1 219 090 km2. It has common boundaries with the republics of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, while the Republic of Mozambique and the Kingdom of Swaziland lie to the north-east. Completely enclosed by South African territory in the south-east is the mountain kingdom of Lesotho. To the west, south and east, South Africa borders on the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Isolated, 1 920 km southeast of Cape Town in the Atlantic, lie Prince Edward and Marion islands, annexed by South Africa in 1947.
The seas
South Africa is surrounded by the ocean on three sides to the west, south and east and has a long coastline of about 3 000 km. This coastline is swept by two major ocean currents the warm south-flowing Mozambique-Agulhas Current and the cold Benguela. The former skirts the east and south coasts as far as Cape Agulhas, while the Benguela Current flows northwards along the west coast as far as southern Angola. The contrast in temperature between these two currents partly accounts for important differences in climate and vegetation between the east and west coasts of South Africa. It also causes big differences in marine life. The cold waters of the west coast are much richer in oxygen, nitrates, phosphates and plankton than those of the east coast. Consequently, the South African fishing industry is centred on the west coast.
The coasts
The coastline itself is an even, closed one with few bays or indentations naturally suitable for harbours. The only ideal natural harbour along the coastline is Saldanha Bay on the west coast. However, the area lacks fresh water and offers no natural lines of penetration to the interior. Most river mouths are unsuitable for use as harbours because large sand bars block entry for most of the year. These bars are formed by the action of waves and currents, and by the intermittent flow, heavy sediment load and steep gradients of most South African rivers. Only the largest rivers, such as the Orange and Limpopo, maintain narrow permanent channels through the bars. For much the same reasons, the country has no navigable rivers.
Relief features
The surface area of South Africa falls into two major physiographic features: the interior plateau, and the land between the plateau and the coast. Forming the boundary between these two areas is the Great Escarpment, the most prominent and continuous relief feature of the country. Its height above sea level varies from approximately 1 500 m in the dolerite-capped Roggeveld scarp in the south-west to a height of 3 482 m in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. Inland from the Escarpment lies the interior plateau, which is the southern continuation of the great African plateau stretching north to the Sahara Desert. The plateau itself is characterised by wide plains with an average height of 1 200 m above sea level. Surmounting the plateau in places are a number of well-defined upland blocks. The dissected Lesotho plateau, which is more than 3 000 m above sea level, is the most prominent. In general, the Escarpment forms the highest parts of the plateau. Between the Great Escarpment and the coast lies an area which varies in width from 80 to 240 km in the east and south to a mere 60 to 80 km in the west. At least three major subdivisions can be recognised: the eastern plateau slopes, the Cape folded belt and adjacent regions, and the western plateau slopes.
